The role of social inequality and individual psychological resources in the incidence of socially significant diseases in Russia and Europe

Abstract: 
Psychological resources of the individual are an important factor of keeping health. Having such psychological features as awareness of their ability to control the life circumstances, a positive perception of themselves and belief in their own strength, self-esteem, optimistic view in the future, have a direct positive impact on the physical and psychological state of a person, promote healthy lifestyles, equip with the ability to cope struggles and reduce stress influence to health. The availability of such psychological resources and their reserve is especially important for people suffering from socially significant chronic diseases accompanied by physical and functional limitations, violations of psychological and social adaptation. However, according to numerous studies, in socially disadvantaged groups of the population – poorly educated, employed in the least prestigious and low-paid jobs with low incomes, together with high risks of morbidity and premature mortality from chronic diseases, there are low rates of psychological resistance due to a shortage of psychological resources. The study of the relationship between social status and individual psychological resources, which affect the health of different social strata’s representatives, allowed us to identify two main approaches. Within the framework of one approach, psychological features are considered to be a product of the structural conditions that determine the inequalities of their distribution in society. The deficit of psychological resources that experienced by representatives of socially vulnerable groups is consider to be contributing the negative impact of low socio-economic status on health and acts as one of the mediating mechanism for the transformation of socio-economic differences into inequalities in health. Another approach emphasizes the role of the person in changing the life circumstances, including those of them that are caused by the adverse effects of low socio-economic status. In this case, attention is focused not so much on the differences in the psychological reserves of individuals who occupy different positions in the socio-economic stratification, as on their variability within one social level. Empirical studies confirm that especially among the socially disadvantaged groups, individuals characterized by greater reserve of positive psychological properties, demonstrate significantly better health compared to those fellow citizens who are deprived of this reserve. In the literature, this phenomenon designates as a" buffer" effect, contributing to the reduction of negative health consequences of low status, and, consequently, to the reduction of socio-structural inequalities in health. In developed European countries, where government guarantees allow lower social strata to maintain self-esteem, confidence in the future and optimism, psychological resources lose their role as a mediator between socio-economic status and health and can lead to a buffer reduction of structural inequalities. In the less developed countries of Europe and in Russia, where public health and education programs do not allow people from the lower strata to maintain psychological stability, structural differences in the risks of chronic diseases and premature mortality persist.
Pages: 
64-73
doi: 

10.33491/telescope2019.5-604

References: 
  • HIV/AIDS surveillance in Europe 2018-2017 data. WHO.
  • Cockerham W.C., Hamby B.W., Oates G.R. The Social Determinants of Chronic Disease//American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2017. Vol. 52. Issue 1. Supplement 1. S.5-S12. DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2016.09.010
  • Oni T., Unwin N. Why the communicable/non-communicable disease dichotomy is problematic for public health control strategies: implications of multimorbidity for health systems in an era of health transition// International Health. 2015. Vol. 7. Issue 6. P.390–399. DOI: 10.1093/inthealth/ihv040
  • Mayer-Foulkes D., Villouta C.P. Economic Development and Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas. 2012. DOI: 10.1515/1524-5861.1889
  • Scaratti, C. et al. Mapping European welfare models: State of the art of strategies for professional integration and reintegration of persons with chronic diseases//International journal of environmental research and public health. 2018. Vol. 15. Issue 4:781. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15040781.
  • Swendeman D., Ingram B.L., Rotheram-Borus M.J. Common elements in self-management of HIV and other chronic illnesses: an integrative framework//AIDS Care. Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV. Vol. 21. 2009. Issue 10. P.1321-1334. DOI: 10.1080/09540120902803158
  • Litvinova, N. Yu. Psychological resources of coping behavior in human life: monograph / N. Yu. Litvinova; Vladim. State University. A. G. and N. G. Stoletov. - - Vladimir: Volga Publishing house, 2015. 88 PP. (In Russian)
  • Vartiainen P., Heiskanen T., Sintonen H. et al. Health-related quality of life and burden of disease in chronic pain measured with the 15D instrument//Pain. 2016. Vol. 157. Issue 10. P.2269–2276. DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000641
  • Phan T., Carter O., Adams C. et al. Discriminant validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Beck Depression Inventory (II) and Beck Anxiety Inventory to confirmed clinical diagnosis of depression and anxiety in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease//Chronic Respiratory Disease 2016. Vol. 13. Issue 3. P.220-228. DOI: 10.1177/1479972316634604
  • Bereznyak Yu. S., Seleznev S. B. Clinical and psychological features of patients with coronary heart disease//Siberian medical journal. 2017. No. 1. (In Russian)
  • Williamson T., Stanton A. et al. Metastatic breast cancer collateral damage project: Associations of disease-specific concerns and experiences with psychological health, illness management, and health behaviors//Breast cancer research and Treatment. 2018. Vol. 78 (4 Suppl). Abstract P6-12-07.  DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.SABCS17-P6-12-07
  • Rupprecht-Schampera U. Hypochondria as a self-destructive attack on the subject’s vitality//The International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 2018. Vol. 99. Issue 1. P.140-158. DOI: 10.1080/00207578.2017.1398590
  • Seeman M., Seeman T. E. Health behavior and personal autonomy: A longitudinal study of the sense of control in illness//Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1983. Issue 24. P.144-160. doi:10.2307/2136641
  • Ryff C.D., Radler B.T., Friedman E.M. Persistent psychological well-being predicts improved self-rated health over 9–10 years: Longitudinal evidence from MIDUS//Health Psychology Open. 2015. Vol. 1. Issue 2. DOI: 10.1177/2055102915601582
  • O’Donnell K., Brydon L. et al.  Self-esteem levels and cardiovascular and inflammatory responses to acute stress//Brain, Behavior and Immunity. 2008. Issue 22. P.1241–1247. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2008.06.012.
  • Steptoe A., Wright C et al. Dispositional optimism and health behavior in community-dwelling older people: Associations with healthy ageing//British Journal of Health Psychology. 2006. Issue 11. P.71–84. DOI: 10.1348/135910705X42850
  • Yazykova T. A., Ayvazyan T. A., Zaitsev V. P. Factors that influent the level of psychological reserves in patients suffering from chronic somatic diseases//Questions of balneology. Physical therapy and therapeutic physical culture. 2011. №4. P.11-15 (In Russian)
  • Cutler D., Deaton A., Lleras-Muney A. The determinants of mortality//Journal of economic perspectives. 2006. Vol. 20. №. 3. P.97-120. DOI: 10.1257/jep.20.3.97
  • Prüss-Üstün A. et al. Preventing disease through healthy environments: a global assessment of the burden of disease from environmental risks. 2016. 147p. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.07.028
  • Link B. G., Phelan J. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease//Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1995. Vol. 51. Extra Issue. P.80-94. doi: 10.2307/2626958
  • Preston S.H., Taubman P. Socioeconomic Differences in Adult Mortality and Health Status. Demography of Aging. 1994. P.279-318
  • Marmot M. Perspective: Acting On The Evidence To Reduce Inequalities In Health: A member of the Scientific Advisory Group explains the Acheson Report, commissioned by the Labor government to examine the health of the British public//Health Affairs. 1999. Vol. 18. Issue 3. P.42-44.
  • Adler N. E. et al. Socioeconomic status and health: the challenge of the gradient//American psychologist. 1994. Vol. 49. Issue 1. P.15-24. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.49.1.15
  • Marmot M. G. The status syndrome. How social standing affects our health and longevity. 2004. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
  • Adler N. E., Snibbe A. C. The role of psychosocial processes in explaining the gradient between socioeconomic status and health//Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2003. Vol. 12. Issue 4. P.119–123. doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01245
  • Wilkinson R. G. Socioeconomic determinants of health – Health inequalities: Relative or absolute material standards? //British Medical Journal. 1997. Vol. 314. Issue 7080. P.591-595. doi: 10.1136/bmj.314.7080.591
  • Demakakos P., Biddulph J. et al. The role of subjective social status in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality: Evidence from the English longitudinal study of ageing (ELSA) Revue d'Épidémiologie et de Santé Publique. 2018. Vol. 66. S.358 doi.org/10.1016/j.respe.2018.05.331
  • Gallo L.C, Matthews K.A. Understanding the association between socioeconomic status and physical health: Do negative emotions play a role? //Psychological Bulletin. 2003. Vol. 129. Issue 1. P.10-51. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.10.
  • Matthews K.A., Gallo L.C., Taylor Sh. E. Are psychosocial factors mediators of socioeconomic status and health connections? A progress report and blueprint for the future//Annals of the New York Academy of sciences. 2010. P.146-173. Issue: The Biology of Disadvantage doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05332.x
  • Baum A., Garofalo J.P., Yali A.M. Socioeconomic status and chronic stress. Does stress account for SES effects on health? //Annals of the New York Academy of sciences. 1999. Vol. 896. P.131-44. doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08111.x
  • Cohen S., Janicki-Deverts D. Miller G.E. Psychological Stress and Disease//Journal of the American Medical Association. 2007. Vol. 298. Issue 14. P.1685-1687. doi:10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
  • Everson-Rose S.A., Lewis T.T. Psychosocial factors and cardiovascular diseases//Annual Review of Public Health. 2005. Vol. 26. P.469-500. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144542
  • Steptoe A., Kivimäki M. Stress and cardiovascular disease: an update on current knowledge//Annual review of public health.  2013. Vol. 34. P.337-354. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2012.45.
  • Cohen S., Janicki-Deverts D., Miller E. Psychological stress and disease//Journal of the American Medical Association. 2007. Vol. 298. Issue 14. P.1685-1687. DOI: 10.1001/jama.298.14.1685
  • Mendenhall E., Kohrt B.A. et al. Non-communicable disease syndemics: poverty, depression, and diabetes among low-income populations//Lancet. 2017. Vol. 389. Issue 10072. P.951-963. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30402-6.
  • Kiecolt-Glaser J. K., Glaser R. Psychoneuroimmunology and cancer: fact or fiction? //European Journal of Cancer. 1999. Vol. 35. Issue 11. P.1603-1607. DOI:10.1016/s0959-8049(99)00197-5
  • Pikhart H., Pikhartova J. The relationship between psychosocial risk factors and health outcomes of chronic diseases: a review of the evidence for cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Health Evidence Network synthesis report. 2015.
  • Glaser R., Rabin B. et al. Stress-Induced Immunomodulation: Implications for Infectious Diseases?//Journal of the American Medical Association. 1999. Vol. 281 Issue 24. P.2268–2270. doi:10.1001/jama.281.24.2268
  • Tang K.L., Rashid R., Godley J. et al. Association between subjective social status and cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis//British Medical Journal Open. 2016. Vol. 6:e010137. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010137
  • McLeod J. D., Kessler R.C. Socioeconomic status differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events//Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1990. Vol.31. P.162–172. PMID: 2102495
  • Hatch S. L., Dohrenwend B. P. Distribution of traumatic and other stressful life events by race/ethnicity, gender, SES and age: A review of the research //American journal of community psychology. 2007. Vol. 40. Issue 3-4. P.313-332. DOI: 10.1007/s10464-007-9134-z
  • Matthews K.A, Gallo L.C. Psychological perspectives on pathways linking socioeconomic status and physical health//Annual review of psychology. 2011. Vol. 62. P.501-530. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130711
  • Hobfoll S.E.  Social and Psychological Resources and Adaptation//Review of General Psychology. 2002. Vol. 6. Issue 4. P.307-324. DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307
  • Seligman M. E. P. Helplessness. 1975. San Francisco: Freeman.
  • Pearlin L., Schooler C. The structure of coping//Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1978. Vol. 19. Issue 1. P.2–21. DOI: 10.2307/2136319
  • Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change//Psychological Review. 1977. Vol. 84. Issue 2. P.191-215. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191
  • Rosenberg M. Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1965.
  • McAuley E., Blissmer B. Self-efficacy determinants and consequences of physical activity //Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 2000. Vol. 28. Issue 2. P.85-88. PMID: 10902091
  • Scheier M.F., Carver C.S. Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies//Health Psychology. 1985. Vol. 4. P.219-247. DOI: 10.1037//0278-6133.4.3.219
  • Scheier M.F., Carver C.S. Effects of optimism on psychology and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update//Cognitive Therapy and Research. 1992. Vol. 16. P.201-228 DOI: 10.1007/BF01173489
  • Wenglert L., Rosén A. S. Optimism, self-esteem, mood and subjective health //Personality and Individual Differences. 1995. Vol. 18. Vol. 5. P.653-661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2018.10
  • Rutter M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In: Rolf, J.; Masten A.S.; Cicchetti D.; Nuechterlein, K.H.; Weintraub, S., editors. Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology. Cambridge; New York: 1990. P.181-214. doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511752872.013
  • Major B., Richards C. et al. Personal resilience, cognitive appraisals, and coping: An integrative model of adjustment to abortion//Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998. Vol. 74. Issue 3. P.735-752. DOI: 10.1037//0022-3514.79.1.131
  • Wanberg C.R., Banas J.T. Predictors and outcomes of openness to changes in a reorganizing workplace//Journal of Applied Psychology. 2000. Vol. 85. P.132-142. DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.132
  • Antonovsky A. Health, Stress and Coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1979. A.Antonovsky, Unraveling The Mystery of Health. How People Manage Stress and Stay Well, San Francisco. Jossey-Bass Publishers. 1987.
  • Antonovsky A. The Sense of Coherence as a Determinant in Health. In: Matarazzo, J.D., Ed., Behavioral Health: A Handbook of Health Enhancement and Disease Prevention. John Wiley. New York, 1984. P.114-129.
  • Kobasa S.C. Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness//Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1979. Vol.37. P.1–11. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1
  • Kobasa S.C., Puccetti M.C. Personality and social resources in stress resistance//Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1983. Vol. 45. P.839-850. DOI: 10.1037//0022-3514.45.4.839
  • Gallo L.C., Bogart L.M. et al. Socioeconomic status, resources, psychological experiences, and emotional responses: a test of the reserve capacity model//Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005. Vol. 88. Issue 2. P.386-399. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.386
  • Stamatakis K., Lynch J., Everson S. et al. Self-esteem and Mortality: Prospective Evidence from a Population-based Study//Annals of Epidemiology 2004. Vol.14. P.58-65. PMID: 14664781
  • Stewart D.E., Yuen T. A systematic review of resilience in the physically ill //Psychosomatics. 2011. Vol. 52. Issue 3. P.199-209. doi: 10.1016/j.psym.2011.01.036.
  • Lundgren O., Garvin P., Jonasson L. et al. Psychological resources are associated with reduced incidence of coronary heart disease. An 8-year follow-up of a community-based Swedish sample//International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2015. Vol. 22. P.77-84. DOI: 10.1007/s12529-014-9387-5
  • De las Cuevas et al. The relationship of psychological reactance, health locus of control and sense of self-efficacy with adherence to treatment in psychiatric outpatients with depression//BMC Psychiatry. 2014. Vol. 14. Issue 324. DOI: 10.1186/s12888-014-0324-6
  • Swendeman D., Ingram B.L. et al. Common elements in self-management of HIV and other chronic illnesses: an integrative framework//AIDS Care. 2009. Vol. 21. Issue 10. P.1321-1334. DOI: 10.1080/09540120902803158
  • Taylor S.E., Kemeny M.E. et al. Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health//American Psychologist. 2000. Vol. 55. Issue 1. P.99-109. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.99
  • Infurna F.J., Gerstorf D., Zarit S.H. Examining dynamic links between perceived control and health: Longitudinal evidence for differential effects in midlife and old age//Developmental Psychology. 2011. Vol. 47. Issue 1. P.9-18. DOI: 10.1037/a0021022.
  • Lachman M.E., Agrigoroaei S. Promoting functional health in midlife and old age: Long-term protective effects of control beliefs, social support, and physical exercise//PLoS One. 2010. Vol. 5. Issue 10. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0013297.
  • Rodin J. Timko C., Harris S. The construct of control: biological and psychosocial correlates//Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 1985. Vol. 5. P.3-55. PMID: 3936518
  • Chipperfield J.G., Campbell D.W., Perry R.P. Stability in perceived control implications for health among very old community-dwelling adults//Journal of Aging and Health. 2004. Vol. 16. Issue 1. P.116–147. DOI: 10.1177/0898264303260447.
  • Taylor S.E., Kemeny M.E., Reed G.M. Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health//American Psychologist. 2000. Vol. 55. Issue 1. P.99-109. DOI: 10. I037//0003-066X.55.1.99.
  • Taylor S.E., Seeman T.E. Psychosocial resources and the SES–health relationship//Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999. Vol. 896. Issue 1. P.210-225. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08117.x.
  • Seeman M., Lewis S. Powerlessness, health and mortality: a longitudinal study of older men and mature women//Social Science and Medicine. 1995. Vol. 4l. Issue 4. P.5l7-525. DOI: 10.1016/0277-9536(94)00362-w
  • Surtees P.G., Wainwright N.W.J., Luben R. et al. Mastery is associated with cardiovascular disease mortality in men and women at apparently low risk//Health Psychology. 2010. Vol. 29. Issue 4. P. 412-420. DOI: 10.1037/a0019432.
  • Lundgren O., Garvin P. et al. Psychological resources are associated with reduced incidence of coronary heart disease. An 8-year follow-up of a community-based Swedish sample//International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2015. Vol. 22. Issue 1. P.77-84. DOI: 10.1007/s12529-014-9387-5.
  • Roepke S.K., Grant I. Toward a more complete understanding of the effects of personal mastery on cardiometabolic health//Health Psychology. 2011. Vol. 30. Issue 5. P.615-632. DOI: 10.1037/a0023480.
  • Stamatakis K.A., Lynch J., Everson S.A. et al. Self-esteem and Mortality: Prospective Evidence from a Population-based Study//Annals of Epidemiology. 2004. Vol. 14. Issue 1. P.58-65. DOI: 10.1016/S1047-2797(03)00078-4.
  • Rasmussen H.N., Scheier M.F., Greenhouse J.B. Optimism and physical health: A meta-analytic review//Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2009. Vol. 37. № 3. P.239-256. DOI: 10.1007/s12160-009-9111-x.
  • Bosma H., Schrijvers C., Mackenbach J.P. Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality and importance of perceived control: cohort study// British Medical Journal. 1999. Vol. 319 Issue 7223. P.1469-1470. doi: 10.1136/bmj.319.7223.1469
  • Lachman M.E., Weaver S.L. The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being//Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998. Vol. 74. Issue 3. P.763-773. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.763.
  • Marmot M.G. et al. Contribution of Psychosocial Factors to Socioeconomic Differences in Health // Milbank Quarterly. 1998. Vol. 76. Issue 3. P.403-448. PMID: 9738169
  • Festin K, Thomas K. et al. Choice of measure matters: A study of the relationship between socioeconomic status and psychosocial resources in a middle-aged normal population//PLoS ONE. 2017. Vol. 12. Issue 8. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0178929
  • Twenge J.M., Campbell W.K. Self-esteem and socioeconomic status: A meta-analytic review//Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2002. Vol. 6. Issue 1. P.59-71. DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_3
  • Robb K.A., Simon A.E., Wardle J. Socioeconomic disparities in optimism and pessimism//International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2009. Vol. 16. Issue 4. P.331-338. DOI 10.1007/s12529-008-9018-0.
  • Schnittker J. Psychological factors as mechanisms for socioeconomic disparities in health: a critical appraisal of four common factors//Social Biology. 2004. Vol. 51. Issue 1/2. P.1-23. DOI: 10.1080/19485565.2004.9989080.
  • Bosma H. et al. Low control beliefs, classical coronary risk factors, and socio-economic differences in heart disease in older persons//Social Science & Medicine. 2005. Vol. 60. Issue 4. P.737-45. DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.018.
  • Finkelstein D.M, Kubzansky L.D. et al. Socioeconomic differences in adolescent stress: the role of psychological resources//Journal of Adolescent Health. 2007. Vol. 40. Issue 2. P.127-134. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.006.
  • Gallo L.C., de los Monteros K.E. et al. Education, psychosocial resources, and metabolic syndrome variables in Latinas//Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2007. Vol. 34. № 1. P.14-25. DOI: 10.1007/BF02879917.
  • Matthews K.A., Raikkonen K. et al. Association between socioeconomic status and metabolic syndrome in women: Testing the reserve capacity model//Health Psychology. 2008. Vol. 27. Issue 5. P.576-583. DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.5.576.
  • Cohen S., Alper C.M. et al. Objective and subjective socioeconomic status and susceptibility to the common cold//Health Psychology. 2008. Vol. 27. Issue 2. P.268-274. DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.268.
  • O'Brien K.M. Healthy, wealthy, wise? Psychosocial factors influencing the socioeconomic status–health gradient//Journal of Health Psychology. 2012. Vol. 17. Issue 8. P.1142-1151. doi: 10.1177/1359105311433345.
  • Turiano N., Chapman B.P. et al. Perceived control reduces mortality risk at low, not high, education levels//Health Psychology. 2014. Vol. 33. Issue 8. P.883-890. DOI: 10.1037/hea0000022
  • Schöllgen I., Huxhold O. et al. Resources for Health: Differential Effects of Optimistic Self-Beliefs and Social Support According to Socioeconomic Status//Health Psychology. 2011. Vol. 30. Issue 3. P.326-335. DOI: 10.1037/a0022514
  • Atal S., Cheng C. Socioeconomic health disparities revisited: coping flexibility enhances health-related quality of life for individuals low in socioeconomic status//Health and Quality of Life Outcomes. 2016. Vol. 14. Issue 7. DOI: 10.1186/s12955-016-0410-1.
  • Chen E., Miller G.E. «Shift-and-persist» strategies: Why being low in socioeconomic status isn’t always bad for your health//Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2012. Vol. 7. Issue 2. P.135-158. DOI: 10.1177/1745691612436694
  • Rusinova N. L., Safronov V. V. Personal psychological resources and social inequalities in health: buffer effect expression in European countries//Demograficheskoe obozrenie. 2017. no. 3. DOI: 10.17323/demreview.v4i3.7317  (In Russian).
  • Rusinova N. L., Safronov V. V. The Psychological Mediators of Social Inequalities in Health: Self-efficacy in Europe and Russia// Sotsiologicheskii zhurnal. 2018. Vol. 24. no. 4. P. 30-53.  DOI: 10.19181/socjour.2018.24.4.6096   (In Russian).